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Just about every governmental entity below the federal level has a constitutional or a charter provision that requires a balanced budget annually. If revenues go up or down unexpectedly, states and localities have to be prepared to either give back some revenue, give taxpayers a credit on next year's taxes (in the case of a surplus), or cut spending and programs in case of a deficit.
If a state or local government has to spend more than it takes in for capital improvements (new roads, a new school, etc.), then they issue bonds or raise taxes. A bond issue is in effect government borrowing from its citizens. The bonds are paid off (retired) over a specified period of time (30 years or whatever), the folks who bought the bonds make a bit of money, and the taxpayers spread out the cost of the capital improvement over time.
The federal government, by contrast, has no constitutional requirement to balance its budget, but it still has to pay its bills when expenditures exceed revenues. As such, the federal government issues bonds (U.S. Savings Bonds are actually loans you as a private citizen make to the Treasury) or increasingly borrows from folks with lots of money. This can be high-finance entities like banks, but it can also be other governments.
The federal government, as borrowing as it is, has never defaulted on a loan or a bond, so lenders continue to line up to finance government operations. If you buy a savings bond, you can redeem it at any bank any time after holding it for six months. The longer you hold the bond, the more interest (which is taxable as income) you are paid, up to a certain limit. The bigger creditors receive their interest payments, service fees, and other considerations -- pecuniary and political -- in the same way.
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